When I asked children to write down swear words, many of them included words like kaalikaaju (turnip brain) or idu (sprout), which I would consider insults. What is the difference between profanity and insults?

When we talk about profanity or words of that kind, they all fall under the category of linguistic taboo. That is what connects them. In certain contexts, they are inappropriate or potentially offensive. A broader umbrella term for them would probably be swear words. The linguistic taboo they relate to can involve many different areas. Traditional Estonian swearing is largely connected with religion — words like kurat (devil), saatan (Satan), põrgu (hell), but also issand (Lord), jeerum, jestas (from Jesus).

Profanity, more specifically, is connected with one part of that taboo — sexuality. This includes all the words referring to sexual organs, whores and similar terms. It is quite a large vocabulary group that is used very frequently and its use has especially increased in recent decades. The taboo surrounding these words has weakened.

But in Estonian, people can also swear or insult using vocabulary from other taboo areas, for example words like istmik (buttocks), tagumik (rear end), perse (ass) and everything that comes out of there. All of that is part of the classic vocabulary. The same goes for words connected with death, for example raisk (from carrion). These kinds of words are the old, traditional Estonian ways of swearing, cursing and insulting.

When we talk specifically about insults, they are defined by how they are used. Profanity and swearing can be things you say on your own, perhaps to vent. An insult, however, is directed at another person — you use it about someone else because you want to belittle or demean them.

Which are more emotionally charged — profanity or insults?

If we consider that insults are words used to demean another person, then they are certainly very strongly charged. The same is true of other swear words, including profanity. Among these other swear words, profanity is probably still the strongest today. Vocabulary connected with sexuality has historically been the largest taboo area. So these are still very strongly emotionally loaded words.

At the same time, there are milder expressions among these words as well. For example, vocabulary related to religion is generally much softer in modern usage — people clearly perceive it that way. Words like kurat, põrgu, saatan and issand are quite widespread. The abbreviated written form of kurat, krt, which is often seen in writing, has become a very common expression today.

No matter how well we are raised, situations still arise where a not-so-polite expression slips out. Why can't we manage without profanity or insults? Why are they important in language?

First and foremost because these are such strongly emotionally charged words that using them can bring a sense of release. Something goes wrong, it is a very emotional situation and you feel a kind of relief when you use such a word. That is certainly their main function.

But they are used for other purposes as well. Part of this vocabulary clearly functions as a way of creating group identity — as in, we use these kinds of words among ourselves. For example, teenagers often swear quite freely within their peer groups. It serves as a way of expressing identity and maintaining social relationships among them.

There are also studies that discuss the emotional side and emphasize that, for example, swearing at the right moment may even help an athlete improve performance. Swearing in the right place can be very liberating and, at times, even supportive.

How foul-mouthed are Estonians? How rich is our native vocabulary of insults and profanity?

That is a difficult question. These words have not really been recorded in a way that clearly distinguishes whether a word was used as profanity or simply to describe, for example, a horse's genitals. It is hard to determine the function of words that have been written down over time.

Just yesterday I looked at the entry for sexual organs in Saareste's conceptual dictionary and there were a great many words there that I had never heard before. That suggests this vocabulary has always been very extensive. Even today, people are very creative when it comes to inventing new words. Euphemisms are used very often — words that resemble a profane expression without actually being one. Many people probably know the word pohlad, which is a euphemism for a Russian swear word (pohui). Türi-Paide (resembles türa for cock) is also very common. New expressions are constantly emerging, so in that sense it is impossible to say exactly how many such words there are. But there are many.

Estonians use a lot of borrowed insults and swear words. Are borrowed words or our own native words more strongly emotionally charged?

In 2020, we conducted a study in which we asked how much swearing bothers people in general and whether young people swear too much. We also asked whether Russian- or English-language profanity bothers respondents more than Estonian profanity.

In general, Estonian swear words were considered more disturbing. However, there was a clear connection with people's age and their exposure to the language in question. Russian profanity bothered the older generation more, since they tend to know Russian better and understand the meanings behind those words. At the same time, younger respondents were not particularly bothered by Russian profanity. Among younger people, there were slightly more respondents who said that English-language profanity bothered them more.

So it really makes a big difference whether you understand the meaning of the swear word or not.

How well do Estonians understand the real meaning of borrowed swear words? Some Russian expressions are quite common, even though Russians themselves fall silent when they hear them.

It seems to me that the younger generation often does not really perceive the meaning or at least there are more people in that generation who do not understand what the expression actually means. One striking example is the Russian swear word pohhui, which has become a common colloquial word meaning "I don't care" or "whatever." Clearly, many people no longer perceive its original meaning.

The generational differences are quite large. The older generation generally takes a much more disapproving view of swearing overall. It bothers them more and they themselves tend not to use such words. Younger generations are much more relaxed about it — they have largely moved beyond the taboo.

How much have attitudes toward swearing changed? Is it more tolerated today?

It certainly seems that way. The older generation is more disturbed by it. When we asked them to write down all the swear words they knew, some said they simply could not write them down because it felt too awful. The younger generation, on the other hand, took the opportunity and enjoyed the task, writing down everything they knew.

Clearly, attitudes have changed overall and the generational differences are significant. I think this is connected more broadly with the loosening and liberalization of social norms. Sex and sexuality are everywhere around us — we encounter them at every step — and that is probably one reason why the linguistic taboo surrounding these topics has diminished.

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